Glossary

A Scottish doctor who discovered penicillin in 1928 while researching influenza, an antibiotic that was later developed for mass production and is still used to treat bacterial infections today. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1945.

A 1689 law that confirmed Parliament's rights and set firm limits on the monarch's power, including parliamentary control over taxation and the army. It marked the beginning of constitutional monarchy in Britain.

Labour Prime Minister from 1945 to 1951 who oversaw the creation of the National Health Service and the modern welfare state. His government also nationalised key industries such as coal, steel and the railways.

A system of government in which the monarch is head of state but does not govern directly, instead appointing a government chosen through democratic elections. The monarch can advise but must accept the decisions of ministers.

The Channel Islands and the Isle of Man, which are closely linked to the UK but have their own governments and are not part of the United Kingdom. They fall under the authority of the Crown rather than the UK Parliament.

The Scottish Parliament, Welsh Assembly and Northern Ireland Assembly, established from 1999 onwards, which have the power to legislate on certain matters such as health and education within their respective nations. Defence, foreign affairs and taxation remain under central UK government control.

A five-day festival of lights celebrated by Hindus and Sikhs, usually falling in October or November, that marks the victory of good over evil and the gaining of knowledge. There is a particularly notable celebration of Diwali in Leicester.

A Manchester-born suffragette leader who co-founded the Women's Social and Political Union in 1903 and used civil disobedience to campaign for women's right to vote. Women over 30 gained the vote in 1918, and all women over 21 in 1928.

The electoral system used in UK General Elections in which the candidate who wins the most votes in each constituency becomes that constituency's MP. The party winning the most constituencies typically forms the government.

A pioneering British nurse who improved conditions in military hospitals during the Crimean War and later founded the first formal nursing training school at St Thomas' Hospital in London. She is widely regarded as the founder of modern nursing.

A peace accord signed in 1998 that helped bring an end to decades of conflict in Northern Ireland, leading to the establishment of the Northern Ireland Assembly. It required a power-sharing arrangement among the main political parties.

The term referring specifically to England, Scotland and Wales as a combined landmass, distinct from the United Kingdom which also includes Northern Ireland. The full official name of the country is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Legislation passed in 1679 guaranteeing that no one could be held prisoner without a lawful court hearing. The Latin phrase means 'you must present the person in court'.

A defensive wall built in northern England on the orders of the Roman Emperor Hadrian to keep out the Picts, the ancestors of the Scottish people. Parts of it, including the forts of Housesteads and Vindolanda, still survive and form a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Tudor king famous for breaking away from the Roman Catholic Church to establish the Church of England, largely so he could divorce his first wife. He married six times and formally united Wales with England through legislation.

A 19th-century engineer from Portsmouth who designed and built tunnels, bridges, railway lines and ships, including the Great Western Railway running from London to the south-west of England. Many of his bridges remain in use today.

A Scottish inventor who developed television in the 1920s and made the first television broadcast between London and Glasgow in 1932. His pioneering work laid the foundation for the modern broadcasting industry.

A charter of rights agreed in 1215 that established the principle that even the king was subject to the law. It restricted the monarch's power to raise taxes or change laws without the involvement of the nobility.

Conservative Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990 and the first woman to hold that office; she was also the longest-serving Prime Minister of the 20th century. Her government privatised nationalised industries and imposed legal controls on trade unions.

A system of healthcare established in 1948 under Health Minister Aneurin Bevan that guarantees a minimum standard of medical care for all, free at the point of use. It remains one of the UK's most significant public institutions.

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance of European and North American countries committed to defending each other if attacked. The UK is a founding member and remains an active participant.

A parliamentary general who became Lord Protector of England after the Civil War and the execution of Charles I in 1649. He ruled until his death in 1658, during the only period when England was a republic.

Each nation of the UK has a patron saint with a dedicated day: St David (1 March, Wales), St Patrick (17 March, Northern Ireland), St George (23 April, England) and St Andrew (30 November, Scotland). Only Scotland and Northern Ireland treat their patron saint's day as an official public holiday.

Protestant Tudor monarch who re-established the Church of England and skilfully balanced Catholic and Protestant religious tensions to avoid serious conflict. She became one of England's most popular monarchs, particularly after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588.

Observed on 11 November each year to honour those who died fighting for the UK and its allies, originally commemorating the end of the First World War. A two-minute silence is held at 11 am and wreaths are laid at the Cenotaph in Whitehall.

An 18th-century Scottish poet known as 'The Bard' who wrote in Scots language and English and revised many traditional folk songs. His best-known work, Auld Lang Syne, is sung across the world at New Year celebrations.

A British inventor who created the World Wide Web, first successfully transferring information via it on 25 December 1990. His invention transformed global communication and remains one of the most significant British contributions to modern life.

An agreement that united the kingdoms of England and Scotland to create the Kingdom of Great Britain. Scotland retained its own legal system, education system and Presbyterian Church.

An aerial campaign fought in the summer of 1940 in which the Royal Air Force successfully repelled the German Luftwaffe's attempt to gain control of British skies. Victory prevented a German invasion of Britain.

The British Broadcasting Corporation, a publicly funded broadcaster and the largest in the world, financed by television licence fees rather than advertising. It is the only wholly state-funded media organisation that operates independently of the government.

A devastating plague that arrived in Britain in 1348 and killed roughly one third of the population. Its aftermath led to labour shortages, higher wages for peasants and significant social changes.

A sustained German bombing campaign against British cities, particularly London, carried out at night following the Battle of Britain. The term 'Blitz spirit' is still used to describe the national resilience shown during this period.

A committee of approximately 20 senior ministers appointed by the Prime Minister, each responsible for a government department, which meets weekly to set major policy. Its decisions usually require parliamentary debate or approval.

A war memorial on Whitehall in London, designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens, which is the site of the annual Remembrance Day service attended by the monarch, politicians and foreign ambassadors. It commemorates those who died in both World Wars and subsequent conflicts.

A 19th-century reform movement that campaigned for democratic changes including votes for all men, secret ballots and payment for MPs. Though considered a failure at the time, most of their demands had been adopted by 1918.

A voluntary association of 56 countries, most of them former territories of the British Empire, that cooperate on democracy, development and the rule of law. The monarch is its ceremonial head but it has no power to enforce decisions on members.

A detailed survey of England commissioned by William the Conqueror shortly after the Norman Conquest, listing towns, villages, landowners and their assets. It still survives today as a record of society in post-conquest England.

An annual series of arts and cultural events held in Edinburgh every summer, of which the Edinburgh Festival Fringe is the largest and best-known component. The Fringe showcases mainly theatre and comedy, including a great deal of experimental work.

An 18th-century intellectual movement that promoted new ideas about politics, philosophy and science, with many of its leading thinkers being Scottish, including Adam Smith and David Hume. A key principle was that individuals should be free to hold their own religious and political beliefs.

An international treaty drawn up after the Second World War, to which the UK was one of the first signatories in 1950, protecting fundamental rights such as the right to a fair trial and freedom of expression. Its principles were incorporated into UK law through the Human Rights Act 1998.

The 1688 event in which Protestant nobles invited William of Orange to take the English throne from the Catholic James II without any fighting in England. It permanently guaranteed Parliament's supremacy over the monarch.

The democratically elected chamber of the UK Parliament, whose members represent constituencies across the country. It is regarded as the more important of the two parliamentary chambers, and the Prime Minister and most cabinet members are drawn from it.

The unelected upper chamber of Parliament, whose members include life peers, bishops of the Church of England and a small number of hereditary peers. It scrutinises legislation passed by the House of Commons and holds the government to account.

A period of rapid industrialisation in Britain during the 18th and 19th centuries driven by machinery and steam power, making Britain the world's first country to industrialise on a large scale. Manufacturing replaced agriculture as the main source of employment.

A charity founded in 1895 that works to preserve important buildings, coastline and countryside across England, Wales and Northern Ireland, with a separate National Trust for Scotland. It relies heavily on volunteers, with more than 61,000 currently supporting its work.

The successful invasion of England in 1066 by William, Duke of Normandy, who defeated King Harold at the Battle of Hastings and became William the Conqueror. It was the last successful foreign invasion of England and brought lasting changes to language, law and social structure.

The leader of the party with the most seats in the House of Commons, who appoints cabinet ministers and leads the government. The official residence is 10 Downing Street in London.

An eight-week summer season of orchestral classical music organised by the BBC since 1927, with concerts held at venues including the Royal Albert Hall in London. The Last Night of the Proms is its most well-known event.

A fundamental principle of British life stating that every person in the UK is subject to the same laws, regardless of background or status. It is one of the core values that new citizens pledge to uphold at the citizenship ceremony.

The chief Officer of the House of Commons, elected by MPs in a secret ballot, who chairs debates and ensures parliamentary rules are followed. The Speaker remains politically neutral despite being an elected MP.

An annual award established in 1984 celebrating contemporary visual art, named after landscape painter Joseph Turner and regarded as one of Europe's most prestigious art prizes. Four shortlisted works are exhibited at Tate Britain before the winner is announced.

The official flag of the United Kingdom, combining the crosses of St George (England), St Andrew (Scotland) and St Patrick (Ireland). Wales is not separately represented because it was already united with England when the first Union Flag was created in 1606.

A civil war fought between 1455 and 1485 to determine the English throne, pitting the House of Lancaster (red rose) against the House of York (white rose). It ended at the Battle of Bosworth Field, where Henry Tudor of Lancaster became King Henry VII.

A system of government-provided benefits and services, including the NHS and social security, designed to protect citizens from hardship 'from the cradle to the grave'. It was built on the recommendations of the Beveridge Report and implemented by the post-war Labour government.

The world's oldest tennis tournament, held annually at the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, and the only Grand Slam event played on grass. It is the most prestigious tennis tournament hosted in Britain.

A British economist and social reformer whose 1942 Beveridge Report recommended tackling the five 'Giant Evils' of Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor and Idleness. His proposals formed the basis of the modern welfare state.

An English playwright, actor and poet born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564, widely regarded as the greatest playwright of all time. His works, including Hamlet, Macbeth and Romeo and Juliet, are still performed and studied worldwide.

An evangelical Christian MP who campaigned alongside abolitionists to turn public opinion against the slave trade. His efforts contributed to the 1807 law banning the slave trade from British ships and ports.

Conservative politician who became Prime Minister in May 1940 and led Britain through the Second World War, refusing to surrender to Nazi Germany. He was voted the greatest Briton of all time in a 2002 public poll.