Charles II (reigned 1660–1685)

After the English Civil War, King Charles I had been executed in 1649 and England was ruled as a republic — the Commonwealth — under Oliver Cromwell, who held the title of Lord Protector. When Cromwell died in 1658, his son Richard briefly succeeded him, but the republic quickly became unstable.

In 1660 Parliament invited Charles II — son of the executed Charles I — to return from exile and take the throne. This was known as the Restoration. Charles II was welcomed back to London, and the monarchy was re-established.

In 1666 a catastrophic fire broke out in a bakery in Pudding Lane in London and rapidly spread, burning for several days. The Great Fire of London destroyed thousands of homes and many of the city's medieval buildings, including the original St Paul's Cathedral.

The fire led to the rebuilding of much of the City of London. The architect Sir Christopher Wren designed a new St Paul's Cathedral and many other churches that still stand today.

Charles II had a keen interest in science and the arts. In 1660 he granted a royal charter to the Royal Society, a fellowship of scientists dedicated to promoting natural knowledge. The Royal Society became one of the most prestigious scientific institutions in the world.

During Charles II's reign, famous scientists including Sir Isaac Newton and Edmond Halley were active. Theatres, which had been closed under Cromwell's strict Puritan rule, were reopened, and the arts flourished once more.